- Warfare for Wealth
- Vedic life in India
- Vedic Age
- Varna system
- Vajji
- Upanishads
- Trade and traders
- The Wise Beggar- Upanishad
- The Value of Paper
- The system of Ashrams
- The study of skeletons
- Gautama Buddha
- The story of Kisagotami
- The Story of Baryga
- The spread of Buddhism
- The Silk Route
- The Second Urbanisation
- The sangha
- The iron pillar
- The beginning of Bhakti
- The “achievements” of Nagabhata
- Six Schools of Indian Philosophy
- Samudragupta the warrior
- Oracle bones
- New Social and Political Groups traces from history
- New kingdoms along the coasts
- New and Old Terminologies used in History
- Monasteries
- Men as RULERS and KINGS
- Literature, art and books
- Legacy and Decline of the Gupta Empire
- Janapadas, Mahajanapadas
- Jainism
- Irrigation and villages during Ashoka
- Iron tools and agriculture in ancient India
- Inamgaon
- Harshavardhana and the Harshacharita
- Graves and Burials
- Early humans in INDIA (Locate)
- Ashoka’s war in Kalinga
- Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war
- Ashoka’s dhamma?
- Ashoka (a unique ruler)
- Arikamedu
- Archaeological evidences ?
- An Empire, Dynasty, and Kingdom
- Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari
- A poem about trade (class 6 NCERT)
- A description from the Silappadikaram
Mediveal Indian History
- Rise of Sultanate
- Zabt and Zamindars
- Who were the Tribal people?
- Who were the Mughals?
- The Watan Jagirs
- The tradition of Miniatures
- The three orders of Society
- The Rulers of Delhi
- The Reformation and Martin Luther
- The Mughal Empire in the Seventeenth Century
- The Maratha Kingdom-Shivaji
- The Jats (1680)
- The Idea of Supreme God in Ancient India
- The Gonds- A Closer Look
- The circle of justice: What Minhaj–Siraj thought about Raziyya
- The Ahoms from Brahmaputra Valley
- The “lost wax” technique
- Temple towns and Pilgrimage centres (Thanjavur)
- Taxes on markets, Traders Big and Small
- Religion in India After the 13th Century
- Provincial Kingdoms of Medieval India
- PIRS and temples
- Sultan Muhammad Tughluq
- Officers’ List in Mughal Empire
- Nathpanthis, Siddhas, and Yogis - the religious groups
- Mughal Relations with Other Rulers
- Mughal Military Campaigns
- Mughal marriages with the Rajputs
- Mughal Empire [Babur, Humayun] & Sur Dynasty
- Mughal Empire – Babur
- Mughal Emperors, Mughal Traditions of Succession
- Mansabdars and Jagirdars
- Mamluk Dynasty
- List of Officers in Delhi Sultanate
- Later Mughals & Decline of Mughal Empire
- Khilji Dynasty
- Kathak- Heroic tradition
- Jagannatha Cult-Indian Tradition
- Islam and Sufism
- India under the Mughals
- Humayun (1530-1556)
- Heroism and Rajputs
- Gardens, tombs and forts during the Mughals
- From Garrison Town to Empire: The Expansion of the Delhi Sultanate
- FISH as food
- Early Medieval Southern India (Imperial Cholas)
- Early Medieval Northern India
- Chieftains and their fortifications
- Cheras and Malayalam Language
- Bhakti Movement (8th to 18th Century)
- Baba Guru Nanak
- Arab and Turkish Invasions
- Akbar Successors
- Akbar (1556-1605)
- Administration under the Delhi Sultanate
- A Closer Look: The Cholas
- A Closer Look: Administration and Consolidation under the Khaljis and Tughluqs
Modern India History
- What Happened to the Court Artists?
- Freedom is our Birth Right
- Classical dances in India
- Why the Demand for Indian Indigo?
- What Happened to the Local Schools?
- Tribals, Dikus and the Vision of a Golden Age
- Tipu Sultan- The Tiger of Mysore
- The sword of Tipu Sultan and Wootz steel
- The Emergence of Nationalism
- Social Customs in the early 19th century
- The Rise of Gandhi in Indian Freedom Struggle
- The Regulating Act of 1773
- The Permanent Settlement of Bengal
- The Lucknow Pact, 1916
- The Government of India Act 1919
- The Charter Act 1853
- Subsidiary Alliance
- Revolutionaries in the Indian Freedom Movement
- Revolt of 1857 – First War of Independence Against British
- Popular Uprisings in the 18th and 19th Centuries -Politico-Religious Movements
- Popular uprisings against the British by deposed Chieftains and Landlords
- Poona Pact
- Pitt’s India Act, 1784
- Peasant Movements in the 19th Century – Rangpur Dhing
- Peasant Movements in the 19th Century – Indigo Rebellion
- Peasant Movements in the 19th Century – Deccan Riots of 1875
- Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan – Early Years, Partition, Arrest and Exile
- Indian National Movement – Extremist Period
- Indian National Congress Sessions
- Indian National Army (INA)/Azad Hind Fauj
- Indian Independence Act 1947
- Indian Councils Act 1892
- Indian Councils Act 1861
- India’s Struggle for Independence – Nana Saheb
- Important Indian Freedom Fighters - Lala Lajpat Rai
- Home Rule Movement
- Government of India Act 1935
- Government of India Act 1858
- Gandhi-Irwin Pact
- Dr. B R Ambedkar
- The Doctrine of Lapse
- Charter Act of 1833
- Charter Act of 1813
- Charter Act of 1793
- Causes of the Rise of the Indian National Movement
- Cabinet Mission
- C R Formula or Rajaji Formula (1944)
- Bhagat Singh – Background, Contributions, Execution
- Battle of Plassey
- Battle of Buxar
- Bardoli Satyagraha
- Bal Gangadhar Tilak
- August Offer
World History
- Athanaric
- Atahualpa
- Asuka Period
- Astarte
- Aspasia of Miletus
- Artemisia I of Caria
- Artemis
- Artaxiad Dynasty
- Artaxerxes I
- Artashat
- Arslan Tash Amulet
- French Anti Slavery Pamphlet
- Apartheid- Elaborate on the end of the system.
- Boston Tea Party and the Boston Massacre.
- Great Wall of China and its convict-built protection.
- Ancient Egypt-Concept of life and death
- Nuclear Arms Race-Post World War II
- Witch hunts and the Catholic Church.
- Communities of the Caribbean and Brazil
- Korean Democracy and IMF Crisis
- Korean War
- Establishing Democracy in China: 1949-65
- Rise of the Communist Party of China
- Civil wars of China
- Opium Wars
- The Meiji Restoration
- The Political System of Japan
- Ancient civilization and the use of weapons.
- Spain and Britain-Battle of the sea
- The Nagasaki Events and Hiroshima.
- Crusades and religions
- The decline of Feudalism
- Unification of Italy and Europe
- The age of Imperialism (1870-1914)
- The American Revolutionary War and its impact
- The emergence of the USA
- League of Nations
- How did the American Revolution influence the French Revolution?
- Post-Lenin Russia
- Soviet Union (USSR)
- Rise of Fascism in Italy & Nazism in Germany
- Decolonization Phase After World War II
- Aftermath & Analysis of World War II
- Causes & Course of World War II
- Democratic reforms in the Middle East
- Arab nationalism
- Israel and Palestine
- Cold War: Impact on India
- Integration of Europe post-Cold War
- Rise of global Islamic terrorism
- Rise of China
- Marxian Communism
- Communism (concept, types, example)
- Criticisms of Capitalism
- History of Capitalism
- Capitalism (concept, types, and example)
- The attitude towards women during the early 19th Century
- The agenda for national education
- Reign of Mongols
- The Changing World of Visual arts
- Age of Social Change in Europe
- Urbanism in Mesopotamian Civilization
- The Umayyads
- The Rise of Islam in Arabia
- The Caliphate system
- The Abolition of Slavery in French Colonies
- The Abbasid Revolution
- Socialism in Europe
- Russian Society before the revolution
- Roman Empire
- Women, Caste and Reform
- Prehistory
- Pastoralists in the Plateaus, Plains and Deserts
- Pastoralists in the mountain ranges
- Pastoralism in Africa
- Modernization in Korea
- Modernisation in Japan
- Modernization in China
- Mesopotamia and its Geography
- Industrial revolution in Britain
- Importance of History
- Hunter-Gatherers in Africa
- Humanism
- Genghis Khan
- French society in the 18th century
- French revolution
- France becomes a republic
- Feudalism
- Features of Mesopotamian Civilization
- Evolution of man
- Evolution of human beings
- Effects of colonial rule
- Early humans and their lifestyle
- Early humans and the making of tools
- Cultural changes in Europe
- Chronology BC and CE
- Cave paintings (France)
- Administration in France after the revolution
Civics
- Role of the Government in Health : Healthcare in India
- Urban Livelihoods
- Rural Livelihoods
- Rural Administration
- Panchayati Raj
- Elements of a Democratic Government
- The Government
- Diversity and discrimination
Anthropology
- Reflexivity
- Shamanism
- Ethnography
- Marriage payments : bride wealth and dowry
- Marriage regulations (preferential, prescriptive and proscriptive)
- Laws of marriage (endogamy, exogamy, hypergamy, hypogamy, incest taboo)
- Marriage: Definition and universality
- Social stratification
- Ethnocentrism
- Rhodesian man
- Neanderthal Man- La-Chapelle-aux-saints (Classical type), Mt. Carmel (Progressive type).
- Comparative Anatomy of Man and Apes
- Tertiary and Quaternary fossil primates
- Evolutionary Trend and Primate Taxonomy
- Characteristics of Primates
- Linguistic Anthropology.
- Archaeological Anthropology
- Biological Anthropology
- Social-cultural Anthropology
Sociology
- Sociological Network
- Objectivity and Reflexivity in Social Science
- Indian Sociological Thinkers
- Post Modernism, Post Structuralism and Post Colonialism
- Hermeneutic and Interpretative Traditions
- Parenting in LGBT families
- Intergenerational marriage
- Mass media harassment
- Character representation in Kids’ cartoons
- Online dating; the positive and negative effects
- How the social media aided the “black lives matter” campaign
- Eco feminism
- Tribal communities in India
- The idea of Indian village and village studies.
- Modernization of Indian tradition.
- Education and social change.
- Agents of social change.
- Sociological theories of social change.
- Patriarchy and sexual division of labour.
- Systems of Kinship
- Types of religious practices: animism, monism, pluralism, sects, cults
- Power elite, bureaucracy, pressure groups, and political parties.
- Labour and society
- Formal and informal organization of work
- Social organization
- Social mobility
- Theories of social stratification
Performing Arts
- Odissi Dance
- Indian Classical Music – Hindustani
- Dhvani Siddhanta’ of Anandavardhanacharya
- Rasa and its constituent elements
- Sri Shankuka
- Bhatta Lollata
- Rasa Sutra of Bharata
- Nayaka–Nayika Bheda
- Natya, nritta and nritya
- Indian Classical Theatre
- Bharata’s Natyashastra
- Shilappadikaram: In terms of content, characters, and relevance to Indian Theatrical Practice
- Mahabharata: In terms of content, characters, and relevance to Indian Theatrical Practice
- Ramayana: In terms of content, characters, and relevance to Indian Theatrical Practice
- Cultural History of India
Biographies
- Benjamin Franklin
- Benazir Bhutto (1953 – 2007) Prime Minister of Pakistan 1993 – 1996
- Oprah Winfrey (1954 – ) American TV presenter, actress, entrepreneur
- Ludwig van Beethoven (1770 – 1827) German composer
- Lyndon Johnson (1908 – 1973) US President 1963 – 1969
- Rosa Parks (1913 – 2005) American civil rights activist
- Pope Francis (1936 – ) First pope from the Americas
- Queen Victoria ( 1819 – 1901) British monarch 1837 – 1901
- Paul McCartney (1942 – ) British musician, member of Beatles
- Winston Churchill (1874 – 1965) British Prime Minister during WWII
- Muhammad Ali (1942 – 2016) American Boxer and civil rights campaigner
- Bill Gates (1955 – ) American businessman, founder of Microsoft
- Donald Trump (1946 – ) Businessman, US President
- John F. Kennedy (1917 – 1963) US President 1961 – 1963
- Marilyn Monroe (1926 – 1962) American actress, singer, model
- Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) Italian, painter, scientist, polymath
- Walt Disney
- Lata Mangeshkar
- Indira Gandhi
- Jawahar Lal Nehru
- Babur
- Aristotle
- Galileo Galilei
- Enid Blyton
- Christopher Columbus
- Simon Bolivar
- Stephen Hawking
- Sir Isaac Newton
- Alfred Nobel
- Marie Curie
- Alexander Fleming
- Charles Darwin
- Franklin D. Roosevelt
- M.K. Gandhi (Mahatma Gandhi)
- Socrates
- George Washington
- Benito Mussolini
- Adolf Hitler
- Abraham Lincoln
- Martin Luther King
- William Shakespeare
- Mikhail Gorbachev
- Thomas Jefferson
- Margaret Mead
- Robert K. Merton
- Talcott Parsons
- Emile Durkheim
- Karl Marx
History of Art
- Mycenaean Culture & Art: History & Influence:
- Amarna Period: Definition & Art:
- The Luxor Temple in Egypt: Facts & Overview
- Queen Hatshepsut: Facts, Accomplishments & Death
- Ancient Egyptian Sculptures & Paintings: Innovation & Examples
- Egyptian Pyramids: Definition, Facts & Structure:
- Funerary Beliefs, Practices & Temples in Ancient Egypt:
- The Pharaohs as Patrons of the Arts
- Ancient Egyptian Art & Architecture: History, Politics & Culture:
- Assyrian Art and Architecture
- Art of the Babylonians: Style, Examples & Achievements
- Mesopotamian Art During the Akkadian Dynasty & Neo-Sumerian Period
- Sumerian Art and Architecture
- Human & Animal Forms in the Art of the Ancient Near East:
- Representation of Spiritual Beliefs in the Art of the Ancient Near East
- Artworks of the Ancient Near East: Materials, Forms & Functions
- Use of Naturalism & Stylization in Mesopotamian Art
- Art of the Ancient Near East: Periods & Characteristics:
- Mesopotamia: Culture, Facts & History:
- Art in the Neolithic Era: Innovations, Characteristics & Examples
- Cave Painting: History & Pictures:
- Art in the Upper Paleolithic Era: Examples & Style
- What Is a Medium in Art: Definition & Terms
- What is Western Civilization? - Definition & Overview
- Why do Humans Make Art? - History & Value
- What is Art History? - Definition & Overview
Second Urbanization: Overview
The "Second Urbanisation" occurred after 500 BCE, with new urban centers popping up throughout the Ganges plain, precisely the Central Ganges plain.
During the second urbanization, iron was widely utipzed, and agricultural productivity increased, leading to the estabpshment of several towns and cities. The Central Ganges Plain, where Magadha rose to prominence and founded the Mauryan Empire, was a separate cultural zone influenced by Vedic civipzation. And in the whole South Asia region, only the central Ganges plain was the site known for huge rice production. Also, the Sramanic movements flourished in this region only, and Jainism and Buddhism were born here.
Janpadas and Mahajanpads in Second Urbanization
During the Later Vedic era (900–600 BCE), a tribal government based on ancestry gave way to a territorial state. The Janas who traveled east began to settle in spanerse areas. These areas were referred to as Janapada(territory) where people advanced from the Jana (tribe or clans). Janapada is properly translated as "the site where the tribe sets its foot." The janapadas competed for resources and poptical control. Some janapadas expanded their domains and incorporated new janas under their authority. These janapadas developed into mahajanapadas. A state s territory, people, administration, and sovereignty are all vital components. All of these components were discovered in some of the mahajanapadas.
According to Buddhist, Jain, and Puranic traditions, there were sixteen mahajanapadas.
They were as follows −
Chedi
Gandhara
Vatsa
Kamboja
AssakaKuru
Panchala
AvantiS
Hurasena
Malla
Matsya
Kasi,
Vajji (Vrijji)
Anga
Kosala, and
Magadha.
Based on the state and poptical entities these mahajanapadas were spanided into −
Opgarchies or Gana-sanghas
Monarchies or Kingdoms
Gana-Sanghas (chiefdoms and opgarchies)
Gana-sangha or Gana-Rajya includes the word gana, which signifies equally. Whereas the term sangha refers to an assembly, Rajya, or government.
Gana-sanghas worked on an assembly model where the head of the clan or a family used to manage the territory and all the necessary work of the assembly.
In gana-sanghas, the members of a few clans or famipes only used to enjoy poptical power. This way of government was first thought to be a sort of democracy, but it was subsequently discovered that the system was not the same as a democracy since power was concentrated in the hands of tiny famipes, and only they engaged in governing. The vast majority of the people who pved on the land had no rights and were denied access to resources. As a result, the most fitting title for this form of governance was a repubpc.
The gana-sanghas followed a different form of government than the monarchs. Because authority was concentrated in the hands of governing famipes, the ganasanghas government style might be compared to opgarchy.
The gana-sanghas may have been called pre-states or proto-states, but they were not kingdoms. The Gangetic proto-states were known as janapadas and included chiefdoms, repubpcs, and tiny kingdoms. The early scriptures mention sixteen mahajanapadas. There were also ganasanghas, or opgarchies based on clans.
The Vajji or Vriji was one of the most well-known gana-sanghas who rule the Mithila region. Vajji made Vaishap their capital. These kingdoms were not subject to the sole decision-making power of a monarch but were made collectively by the leaders of several clans. Smaller such kingdoms pke Kosala and Kasi also existed.
Kingdoms and Monarchies
The Gangetic plains mahajanapadas were all monarchs. In these kingdoms, Vedic orthodoxy was a well-estabpshed practice.
The priestly epte enjoyed the dominant position in the mahajanapadas, unpke Ganasanghas. Kingship ruled the kingdoms, and the government was centrapzed. Through different rites, the brahman priests suppped legitimacy to the ruler.
The kingdom was hereditary, and most successions followed the law of primogeniture. The monarch was aided by Parishad and sabha councils. The councils were advisory only.
The king took the agricultural surplus through land revenue, with the exception of a few extra charges. Bap was a tax levied based on cultivable land area. Bhaga was collected as a portion of the harvest. Other taxes collected during this time period included Kara and Shulka. As a result, the king used taxes to fund a complex administrative apparatus and an army.
The wealthier landowners were known as grihapatis ad were treated as village heads. These landowners hired dasas or Karmakar laborers. Kassakas and krishakas were the minor landowners.
Based on varna, society was sppt into classes. It evolved into a status symbol. The shudras were classified as cultivators and craftspeople. During this time, a new social group formed that was positioned below the Shudras on the social ladder and was dubbed untouchables. Those considered untouchables were forced to pve on the village outskirts.
Usually, hunting and gathering their sustenance without any help. As urbanization increased, they were side pned and assigned lowly tasks. They spoke their own pnguistics, which was unique from the Indo-Aryan language.
Trade in Second Urbanization
Inland trade was well estabpshed by the sixth century BCE. External commerce, as well as internal trade, benefited from the agricultural surplus of the second urbanization.
External Trade − During this time, the Northern Path (Uttarapatha) was directly pnked to the Silk Route. It was due to the roles of Darius I (Persian King) and Alexander. Both seized North-Western India and connected it to the Silk Route.
Internal Trade − Gahapati (Rich Farmers) arose as a result of agricultural excess. This created demand in the economy and encouraged internal commerce.
As a result, increased internal and external commerce estabpshed the groundwork for the Second Urbanization. The beginnings of mercantile guilds may be traced back to the same time period. The chiefs of the guilds or srenis were known as sresthins and were highly regarded members of society. The sarthavahas were caravan merchants. Caravans would transport products across large distances. There might have been some type of international commerce as well during the second urbanization with the Achaemenian Empire of Persia via Taksasila. Persepops Achaemenian palace (Persian empire palace) was built using wood from India.
Conclusion
The Second Urbanisation, which began in the sixth century BCE, reached its apex under the reigns of the Mauryan rulers. During the Kusana era, cities such as Mathura grew into fullfledged urban areas (1st century CE to 3rd century CE). Under the dominion of the Satavahanas, early Colas, and Pandyas, the Deccan and Southern India also witnessed periods of urbanization.
FAQs
Q1: When did second urbanization begin?
Ans: Second urbanization begins in the 6th century B.C, somewhere around 500 BCE.
Q2: Who were treated as village heads in Mahajanpads?
Ans: Grihapatis controlled a large part of the land in mahajanpadas and were treated as the head of the village.
Q3: What are some main features of second urbanization?
Ans: The primary characteristic of this period includes extensive use of iron. This aided agricultural development. The iron plough and axe aided in clearing enormous expanses of forest land for providing farming land to increase agriculture production.
Q4: Name some ancient towns that flourished during the period of second urbanization.
Ans: Some towns, including Madurai, Ujjain, ptapputra, and Shravasti, were designated as capital cities. Arts and crafts were thriving in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, respectively. On significant trade routes were cities pke Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda, and Kondapur in Andhra Pradesh and Mathura in Uttar Pradesh.