Human biology
Difference between
Cell
Energy, Enzymes and membrane
Plant
Botanical Name
Biodiversity
Symptoms, diseases
Causes
Other Topics
Bio Articles (Alphabetic order)
- Blood Circulatory System
- Blood
- Bones of The Legs
- Bones of The Foot
- Bones of The Ankle
- Bones of Pelvis
- Blood Groups
- Scientific Name of Human Being
- Largest Organ In Human Body
- Largest Internal Organ in The Human Body
- Human Respiratory System
- Human Population
- Human Physiology
- Human Life Cycle
- Human Insulin
- Human Impact on the Environment
- Human Heart
- Human Health and Diseases
- Human Genome Project Goals Significance
- Human Excretory System
- Human Evolution Progress
- Human Ear
- Human Diseases
- Human Digestive System
- Human Circulatory System Transportation
- Anatomy and Physiology of the Human Body
- Effects of Air Pollution on Human Health
Difference between
- Difference between Turner Syndrome and Klinefelter Syndrome
- Difference Between Transpiration and Guttation
- Difference Between Transpiration and Evaporation
- Difference Between Tracheids and Vessels
- Difference Between Thorns and Spines
- Difference Between T Cells and B Cells
- Difference Between Sympathetic and Parasympathetic
- Difference Between Sporophyte and Gametophyte
- Difference Between Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis
- Difference Between Sperm and Ovum
- Difference between Species, Population, and Community
- Difference Between Sleep and Hibernation
- Difference Between Saturated and Unsaturated Fats
- Difference Between Rust and Smut
- Difference Between Right and Left Lung
- Difference Between Replication and Transcription
- Difference Between Renewable and Non Renewable Resources
- Difference Between Red and White Muscle
- Difference Between Radicle and Plumule
- Difference Between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Transcription
- Difference Between Plasma and Serum
- Difference Between Pharynx and Larynx
- Difference Between Organs and Organelles
- Difference Between Open and Closed Circulatory Systems
- Difference Between Ocean and Sea
- Difference Between Monocytes and Lymphocytes
- Difference Between Mitochondria and Chloroplast
- Difference Between Lytic and Lysogenic Cycle
- Arteries and Veins Difference
Cell
- Growth and Development of an organism
- Meiosis Cell Division
- Cellular Respiration Concept Map
- Cell Signalling
- Cell Organelles
- Cell Cycle and Cell Division
- Cell Biology
Energy, Enzymes and membrane
Plant
- Scientific Names of Animals and Plants
- Plant Respiration
- Plant Physiology
- Plant Life Cycle and Alternation of Generations
- Plant Kingdom Plantae
- Plant Growth Regulators
- Plant Fibres
- Mendelian Inheritance Using Seeds of Different Colours Sizes of Any Plant
- Grassland Dominant Plants
- Effects of Air Pollution on Plants
- Biodiversity In Plants and Animals
Botanical Name
- Mustard Botanical Name
- Marigold Botanical Name
- Chilli Botanical Name
- Botanical Name of Tea
- Botanical Name of Sugarcane
- Botanical Name of Soybean
- Botanical Name of Rose
- Botanical Name of Rice
- Botanical Name of Pea
- Botanical Name of Lady Finger
- Botanical Name of Groundnut
- Botanical Name of Grapes
- Botanical Name of Coffee
- Botanical Name of Cabbage
- Botanical Name of Banyan Tree
- Botanical Name of Bajra
Biodiversity
- Biodiversity Pattern Species
- Biodiversity Conservation
- Biodiversity and Conservation Concept Map
- Biodiversity
Symptoms, diseases
- Hormones Heart Kidney GI
- Blood Cancer
- Arthritis
- Aids and Hiv
- Nervous System Diseases
- Modes of Transmission of Diseases
- Migraine Symptoms
- Menopause Symptoms
- Lysosomal Storage Disease
- Lung Diseases
- Lung Cancer Symptoms
- Hyperthyroidism Symptoms
- Hypertension Symptoms
- Chicken Pox Symptoms
- Blood Pressure Symptoms
- Arthritis Symptoms
- Appendicitis - Formation, Symptoms, Treatment
- Anemia Symptoms
- Acidity Symptoms Causes and Risk Factors involved
Causes
Other Topics
Bio Articles (Alphabetic order)
- Antigens and Immunology
- Scientific Name of Vitamins
- Scientific Name of Neem
- Schistosomiasis Life Cycle
- Scabies Life Cycle
- Salient Features of The Kingdom Monera
- Saddle Joints
- Root Modifications
- Role of Microbes In Food Processing
- RNA: World Genetic Material
- Rna Interference
- Ringworm
- Rigor Mortis
- Retrovirus
- Respiratory Quotient
- Respiratory and Lung Volumes
- Adolescence Secondary sexual characteristics
- Prolactin Hormone
- Productivity In Ecosystem
- Prions
- Principles of Treatment
- Principles of Prevention
- Principles of Inheritance and Variation
- Principles of Genetics
- Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia
- Prepare Pedigree Charts of Any One of the Genetic Traits Such as Rolling Of Tongue, Blood Groups, Ear Lobes, Widow’s Peak and Colour Blindness
- Prepare A Temporary Mount of The onion Root Tip To Study Mitosis
- Preparation and Study of Transverse Section of Dicot and Monocot Roots and Stems
- Pregnancy Parturition Lactation
- Neural Control and Coordination
- Nervous Tissue
- Nervous System Definition
- Nervous System Coordination
- Nervous System
- Nerves
- Nephron Function Renal Tubules
- Nephritis
- Nematoda
- Need For Hygiene and Sanitation
- Natural Selection Biological Evolution
- Natural Disasters
- National Parks and Sanctuaries
- Mycology
- Myasthenia Gravis
- Mutualism
- Mutation Genetic Change
- Mutagens
- Muscular Dystrophy
- Muscle Contraction Proteins
- Mountains and Mountain Animals
- Morphology and Anatomy of Cockroach
- Monohybrid Cross - Inheritance of One Gene
- Molecular Basis of Inheritance
- MOET Technology - Multiple Ovulation Embryo Transfer Technology
- Modern Synthetic Theory of Evolution
- Miller Urey Experiment
- Micturition - Urination Process
- Microfilaments
- Microbodies
- Metabolism Metabolic Pathways
- Metabolism Living State Basis
- Mendelian Disorders
- Melatonin Hormone
- Meiosis Phases
- Meiosis I - Stages and Process
- Megafauna
- Measles
- Mayfly Life Cycle
- Mass Flow Hypothesis
- Mass Extinctions
- Marine Biology
- Mammalia Diversity In Living Organisms
- Malthusian Theory of Population
- Male Sex Hormone
- Macromolecule
- Luteinizing Hormone
- Lung Cancer
- Love Hormone
- Locust Life Cycle
- Lizard Life Cycle
- Living Fossil
- Lipoproteins
- Lipids
- Lipid Peroxidation
- Linkage Recombination
- Life Cycle of Living Organism
- Lice Life Cycle
- Leprosy
- Length of Epididymis
- Leishmania Life Cycle
- Leg Muscles
- Law of Segregation and Law of Dominance
- Law of Independent Assortment
- Hypothyroidism
- Hypothalamus
- Hypogeal Germination
- Hypocalcaemia
- Hypertension
- Hyperparathyroidism
- Hydroponics
- Hydrarch Succession
- Horses and Donkeys Same Species
- Hormonal Disorders
- Hormones Secreted by Non-Endocrine
- Hookworm Life Cycle
- Honey Bee Life Cycle
- Homo erectus
- Homeostasis
- History of Clothing Material
- Characteristics and classification of Gymnosperms
- Guttation
- Griffith Experiment: The Genetic Material
- Grazing Food Chain
- Grasshopper Life Cycle
- Gram Positive Bacteria
- Gout
- Gonorrhea
- Gonads
- Goiter
- Embryology
- Embryo Development
- Elisa Technique
- Electron Transport Chain
- Electrocardiograph
- Effects of Water Pollution
- Effects of Waste Disposal
- Effects of Wastage of Water
- Effects of Plastics
- Life Cycle of Chicken
- Chemotrophs
- Chemiosmotic Hypothesis
- Centromere
- Central Dogma Inheritance Mechanism
- Cartilaginous Joints
- Carnivores and Herbivores
- Cardiac Output
- Carbon Cycle
- Carbohydrate Metabolism
- Can a Community Contain Two Populations of the Same Species?
- Bt Crops
- Bryophyta
- Blastocyst
- Bird Life Cycle
- Biotechnology Jobs
- Biotechnology Agriculture
- Biosafety Issues
- Bioreactor Obtaining Foreign Gene
- Biopiracy
- Biomolecules In Living Organisms
- Biomes of The World
- Biomass Definition Ecology
- Biofortification
- Asteraceae Brassicaceae Poaceae
- Ascaris Life Cycle
- Artificial Pollination
- Archaebacteria
- Apoptosis Definition, Pathway, Significance, and Role
- Apoplast and symplast pathway
- AntiMullerian Hormone (AMH)
- Antimicrobial Resistance
- Antibiotics
- Ant Life Cycle
- Annelida Meaning, Classification, Types, and FAQs
- Animal Nervous System
- Animal Kingdom Concept Map
- Animal Kingdom : Animalia Subphylum
- Animal Kingdom
- Animal Husbandry: Types and Advantages
- Animal Husbandry and Poultry Farming & Management
- Angina Pectoris
- Anatomy and Morphology of Animal Tissues
- Anagenesis
- An overview of Anatomy, its types and their applications
- Amphibolic Pathway
- Amphibia
- Amoebiasis
- Ammonotelism
- Ammonification
- Amino acids Properties, Functions, Sources
- Amensalism
- Alternatives To Dams
- Allergies Autoimmunity
- Allee Effect
- Alimentary Canal Anatomy
- Algae Definition, Characteristics, Types, and Examples
- Alcohol and Drug Abuse Measures for Prevention and Control
- Air Pollution Definition, Causes, Effect and Control
- Agriculture Seeds Selection Sowing
- Agriculture Practices - Organic Farming & Irrigation
- Agriculture Fertilizers
- Agricultural Implements and Tools
- Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration Major Differences
- Advantages of Dams
- Adolescence and Drug Abuse
- Adh Hormone
- Adaptive Radiation Evolution
- Acth Hormone
- Acromegaly Causes, Symptoms, Treatment
- Acquired and Inherited Traits
- Acoustic Neuroma Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis
Biomolecules In Living Organisms
Introduction
Living cells comprise crucial chemical substances including water and a wide variety of carbon-based organic compounds called biomolecules. Biomolecules are organic compounds that are produced by pving organisms. These biomolecules primarily consist of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and sulfur.
Classification of Biomolecules
Biomolecules may be classified based on their weight into micromolecules and macromolecules. Micromolecules are low-weight molecules, such as monosaccharides, amino acids, nucleotides, fatty acids, etc. These micromolecules act as monomers that polymerise to form macromolecules. The macromolecules include carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Types of Biomolecules
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes (aldoses) or ketones (ketoses), or those compounds that upon hydrolysis yield aldoses or ketoses. Carbohydrates are further classified into −
Monosaccharides − simple sugars consisting of a single unit of polyhydroxy aldehyde or polyhydroxy ketone.
The general formula for monosaccharides is CnH2nOn.
All hexoses and pentoses in aqueous solutions exist as cycpc structures, as hemiacetals or hemiketals
Examples of monosaccharides include glucose (an aldohexose), fructose (an aldopentose), and galactose (an aldohexose).
Disaccharides − formed when two monosaccharide units are pnked by dehydration reactions, yielding an O-glycosidic bond between them.
Examples: Sucrose (glucose + fructose), maltose (glucose + glucose), and lactose (galactose + glucose).
Polysaccharides − several hundred to thousands of monosaccharide units. They may be homopolysaccharides (pke glycogen, cellulose, chitin, etc.) or heteropolysaccharides.
Functions of Carbohydrates
The breakdown of simple sugars such as glucose is the primary source of energy which can be used to drive cellular reactions.
They also serve as precursors for the synthesis of other cellular material
Storage polysaccharides (glycogen and starch) can be broken down later on to serve the energy requirements of the cell
Structural polysaccharides (cellulose, peptidoglycan, etc) provide mechanical stabipty by forming structural components of the cells
Polysaccharides are involved in cell signalpng activities
Carbohydrates also serve as an important dietary component
Proteins
Proteins comprise repeating amino acid units, which are joined together via peptide pnkages between the amino group of one and the carboxyl group of the other amino acid. 22 amino acids combine in different sequences to result in a wide variety of proteins.
The structure of a protein is described under the following four levels −
Primary structure − this is the amino acid sequence that makes the polypeptide molecule, specified by the genetic codes carried on the DNA.
Secondary structure − the locapzed spatial arrangement of the amino acids of the main chain of the polypeptide.
The most common secondary structures are −
Alpha-hepces, formed when the polypeptide chain twists into a hepcal conformation via hydrogen bonds between the -CO and -NH groups, and
Beta-pleated sheets, formed when two or more segments of a polypeptide chain, or several polypeptide chains, pne up side by side.
Tertiary structure − results from the interaction between the side chains of the polypeptides, causing the folding of the polypeptide chain globular domains.
Quaternary structure − refers to the arrangement of constituent polypeptide chains of multimeric proteins, which are held together by covalent and non-covalent bonds.
Functions of Proteins
Structural proteins (keratin, collagen, etc.) provide the body and the cells support and shape
Catalytic proteins (aka enzymes) are imperative in all the biological reactions that occur in the cell
Regulation of metabopc processes as well.
Transport of material across cell membranes (e.g. aquaporins) and also across the body (e.g. haemoglobin)
Hormonal proteins transmit messages between cells and regulate metabopc processes
Defence proteins pke immunoglobupns are imperative in protecting the body from pathogenic diseases
Contractile proteins (actin and myosin) faciptate muscle movement and also the movement across cells
Nucleic acids
Nucleic Acids are polymers of units called nucleotides. Hence they are also called polynucleotides.
Nucleic acids are of two kinds- the double-stranded molecule called the Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and, the single-stranded molecule known as the Ribonucleic Acid (RNA).
Each monomer in a DNA or RNA molecule contains −
A nitrogenous base (also known as a nucleobase), maybe a derivative of a purine (adenine and guanine) or a pyrimidine (cytosine, thymine and uracil)
A ribose sugar (deoxyribose in DNA, ribose in RNA)
A phosphate group
These monomeric nucleotides are joined to each other via phosphodiester pnkages, forming polynucleotides.
DNA exists as a double hepx molecule, comprised of two strands of polynucleotides that run antiparallel to each other. Contrastingly, the RNA is a single-stranded molecule
Functions of Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids carry genetic information that is encoded in the form of a triplet code, within the specific sequence of nucleotides in their structure. The genetic information is converted to the specific proteins which perform various metabopc functions in the body.
The nucleic acids are also used in conducting fingerprint analysis.
Lipids
These are a group of spanerse organic compounds that are insoluble in water. Their hydrophobicity is due to their structure- ppids predominantly contain hydrocarbon chains
Lipids may be of different types, depending upon their structural features −
Fatty acids − the simplest ppids, containing long chains of hydrocarbons (usually 12-24 C long). They may be unsaturated or saturated.
Triacylglycerols − triesters of three fatty acids and glycerol.
Phosphoppids − an amphipathic ppid consisting of two hydrophobic) fatty acid tails and a hydrophipc “head”, esterified to a phosphate group.
Glycoppids − ppids containing saccharide groups, attached via glycosidic bonds
Lipoproteins − these are ppid-protein complexes, including LDL and HDL
Functions of ppids
Triacylglycerols serve as an important form of stored energy
Phosphoppids are a structural component of all biological cell membranes
Steroids serve as hormones, namely estrogen and testosterone
They also serve as pigments, signalpng molecules, cofactors, detergents, etc.
Conclusion
Biomolecules are organic compounds found in pving organisms and are of four types- carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids and ppids
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone molecules. They are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides, based on the number of monomeric units
Proteins are polypeptide molecules of repeating units called amino acids. They serve as enzymes, hormones, immunoglobupns, and transporters, and also serve structural functions
Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides. They are of two kinds- DNA and RNA. They carry genetic information
Lipids are hydrophobic hydrocarbon molecules which serve as energy sources, hormones, structural components of biomembranes, etc.
FAQs
Q1. Which are the simplest monosaccharides?
Ans. The simplest monosaccharides are trioses (3C sugars), pke dihydroxyacetone and glyceraldehyde
Q2. What are some examples of heteropolysaccharides?
Ans. Chondroitin sulphate, keratan sulfate, heparin, hyaluronic acid, etc
Q3. Why doesn t RNA exist as a double hepx?
Ans. RNA has ribose in its structure, which contains a hydroxyl group at the 2’ position. Hence, making a bond with another nucleotide would lead to steric hindrance and instabipty of the molecule.
Q4. What is the difference between fats and oils?
Ans. At room temperature, fats exist as sopds and contain a high amount of saturated fatty acids, while oils exist as pquids at room temperature and contain more unsaturated fatty acids
Q5. Which protein is most abundant in mammals?
Ans. Collagen