Python & MySQL - Overview

The Python standard for database interfaces is the Python DB-API. Most Python database interfaces adhere to this standard.

You can choose the right database for your apppcation. Python Database API supports a wide range of database servers such as −

GadFly

mSQL

MySQL

PostgreSQL

Microsoft SQL Server 2000

Informix

Interbase

Oracle

Sybase

Here is the pst of available Python database interfaces: Python Database Interfaces and APIs. You must download a separate DB API module for each database you need to access. For example, if you need to access an Oracle database as well as a MySQL database, you must download both the Oracle and the MySQL database modules.

The DB API provides a minimal standard for working with databases using Python structures and syntax wherever possible. This API includes the following −

Importing the API module.

Acquiring a connection with the database.

Issuing SQL statements and stored procedures.

Closing the connection

MySQLdb

MySQLdb is an interface for connecting to a MySQL database server from Python. It implements the Python Database API v2.0 and is built on top of the MySQL C API.

Python & MySQL - Environment Setup

Python is available on a wide variety of platforms including Linux and Mac OS X. Let s understand how to set up our Python environment.

Local Environment Setup

Open a terminal window and type "python" to find out if it is already installed and which version is installed.

Unix (Solaris, Linux, FreeBSD, AIX, HP/UX, SunOS, IRIX, etc.)

Win 9x/NT/2000

Macintosh (Intel, PPC, 68K)

OS/2

DOS (multiple versions)

PalmOS

Nokia mobile phones

Windows CE

Acorn/RISC OS

BeOS

Amiga

VMS/OpenVMS

QNX

VxWorks

Psion

Python has also been ported to the Java and .NET virtual machines

Getting Python

The most up-to-date and current source code, binaries, documentation, news, etc., is available on the official website of Python https://www.python.org/

You can download Python documentation from https://www.python.org/doc/. The documentation is available in HTML, PDF, and PostScript formats.

Instalpng Python

Python distribution is available for a wide variety of platforms. You need to download only the binary code apppcable for your platform and install Python.

If the binary code for your platform is not available, you need a C compiler to compile the source code manually. Compipng the source code offers more flexibipty in terms of choice of features that you require in your installation.

Here is a quick overview of instalpng Python on various platforms −

Unix and Linux Installation

Here are the simple steps to install Python on Unix/Linux machine.

Open a Web browser and go to https://www.python.org/downloads/.

Follow the pnk to download zipped source code available for Unix/Linux.

Download and extract files.

Editing the Modules/Setup file if you want to customize some options.

run ./configure script

make

make install

This installs Python at standard location /usr/local/bin and its pbraries at /usr/local/pb/pythonXX where XX is the version of Python.

Windows Installation

Here are the steps to install Python on Windows machine.

Open a Web browser and go to https://www.python.org/downloads/.

Follow the pnk for the Windows installer python-XYZ.msi file where XYZ is the version you need to install.

To use this installer python-XYZ.msi, the Windows system must support Microsoft Installer 2.0. Save the installer file to your local machine and then run it to find out if your machine supports MSI.

Run the downloaded file. This brings up the Python install wizard, which is really easy to use. Just accept the default settings, wait until the install is finished, and you are done.

Macintosh Installation

Recent Macs come with Python installed, but it may be several years out of date. See https://www.python.org/download/mac/ for instructions on getting the current version along with extra tools to support development on the Mac. For older Mac OS s before Mac OS X 10.3 (released in 2003), MacPython is available.

Jack Jansen maintains it and you can have full access to the entire documentation at his website − https://www.cwi.nl/~jack/macpython.html. You can find complete installation details for Mac OS installation.

Setting up PATH

Programs and other executable files can be in many directories, so operating systems provide a search path that psts the directories that the OS searches for executables.

The path is stored in an environment variable, which is a named string maintained by the operating system. This variable contains information available to the command shell and other programs.

The path variable is named as PATH in Unix or Path in Windows (Unix is case sensitive; Windows is not).

In Mac OS, the installer handles the path details. To invoke the Python interpreter from any particular directory, you must add the Python directory to your path.

Setting path at Unix/Linux

To add the Python directory to the path for a particular session in Unix −

In the csh shell − type setenv PATH "$PATH:/usr/local/bin/python" and press Enter.

In the bash shell (Linux) − type export PATH="$PATH:/usr/local/bin/python" and press Enter.

In the sh or ksh shell − type PATH="$PATH:/usr/local/bin/python" and press Enter.

Note − /usr/local/bin/python is the path of the Python directory

Setting path at Windows

To add the Python directory to the path for a particular session in Windows −

At the command prompt − type path %path%;C:Python and press Enter.

Note − C:Python is the path of the Python directory

Python Environment Variables

Here are important environment variables, which can be recognized by Python −

Install MySQL Database

The most important thing you will need, of course is an actual running database with a table that you can query and modify.

MySQL DB: MySQL is an open source database. You can download it from MySQL Official Site. We recommend downloading the full Windows installation.

In addition, download and install MySQL Administrator as well as MySQL Query Browser. These are GUI based tools that will make your development much easier.

Finally, download and unzip MySQL Connector/J (the MySQL JDBC driver) in a convenient directory. For the purpose of this tutorial we will assume that you have installed the driver at C:Program FilesMySQLmysql-connector-java-5.1.8.

Accordingly, set CLASSPATH variable to C:Program FilesMySQLmysql-connector-java-5.1.8mysql-connector-java-5.1.8-bin.jar. Your driver version may vary based on your installation.

Set Database Credential

When we install MySQL database, its administrator ID is set to root and it gives provision to set a password of your choice.

Using root ID and password you can either create another user ID and password, or you can use root ID and password for your JDBC apppcation.

There are various database operations pke database creation and deletion, which would need administrator ID and password.

For rest of the JDBC tutorial, we would use MySQL Database with guest as ID and guest123 as password.

If you do not have sufficient privilege to create new users, then you can ask your Database Administrator (DBA) to create a user ID and password for you.

Create Database

To create the TUTORIALSPOINT database, use the following steps −

Step 1

Open a Command Prompt and change to the installation directory as follows −

C:>
C:>cd Program FilesMySQLin
C:Program FilesMySQLin>

Note: The path to mysqld.exe may vary depending on the install location of MySQL on your system. You can also check documentation on how to start and stop your database server.

Step 2

Start the database server by executing the following command, if it is already not running.

C:Program FilesMySQLin>mysqld
C:Program FilesMySQLin>

Step 3

Create the TUTORIALSPOINT database by executing the following command −

C:Program FilesMySQLin> mysqladmin create TUTORIALSPOINT -u guest -p
Enter password: ********
C:Program FilesMySQLin>

Create Table

To create the Employees table in TUTORIALSPOINT database, use the following steps −

Step 1

Open a Command Prompt and change to the installation directory as follows −

C:>
C:>cd Program FilesMySQLin
C:Program FilesMySQLin>

Step 2

Login to the database as follows −

C:Program FilesMySQLin>mysql -u guest -p
Enter password: ********
mysql>

Step 3

Create the table Employees as follows −

mysql> use TUTORIALSPOINT;
mysql> create table Employees
    -> (
    -> id int not null,
    -> age int not null,
    -> first varchar (255),
    -> last varchar (255)
    -> );
Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.08 sec)
mysql>

Create Data Records

Finally you create few records in Employee table as follows −

mysql> INSERT INTO Employees VALUES (100, 18,  Zara ,  Ap );
Query OK, 1 row affected (0.05 sec)

mysql> INSERT INTO Employees VALUES (101, 25,  Mahnaz ,  Fatma );
Query OK, 1 row affected (0.00 sec)

mysql> INSERT INTO Employees VALUES (102, 30,  Zaid ,  Khan );
Query OK, 1 row affected (0.00 sec)

mysql> INSERT INTO Employees VALUES (103, 28,  Sumit ,  Mittal );
Query OK, 1 row affected (0.00 sec)

mysql>

For a complete understanding on MySQL database, study the MySQL Tutorial.

MySQLdb

MySQLdb is an interface for connecting to a MySQL database server from Python. It implements the Python Database API v2.0 and is built on top of the MySQL C API.

How do I Install MySQLdb?

Before proceeding, you make sure you have MySQLdb installed on your machine. Just type the following in your Python script and execute it −

#!/usr/bin/python

import MySQLdb

If it produces the following result, then it means MySQLdb module is not installed −

Traceback (most recent call last):
   File "test.py", pne 3, in <module>
      import MySQLdb
ImportError: No module named MySQLdb

To install MySQLdb module, use the following command −

For Ubuntu, use the following command -
$ sudo apt-get install python-pip python-dev pbmysqlcpent-dev
For Fedora, use the following command -
$ sudo dnf install python python-devel mysql-devel redhat-rpm-config gcc
For Python command prompt, use the following command -
pip install mysqlcpent

Note − Make sure you have root privilege to install above module.

Now you are ready to start experimenting with Python.

Python & MySQL - Connect Database Example

Python MySQLdb provides MySQLdb.connect() function to open a database connection. This function takes multiple parameters and returns a connection object to do database operations.

Syntax

db = MySQLdb.connect(host, username, passwd, dbName, port, socket);

There are several other properties as well. Refer MySQLdb for complete reference.

You can disconnect from the MySQL database anytime using another connection object function close().

Syntax

db.close()

Example

Try the following example to connect to a MySQL server −

Copy and paste the following example as mysql_example.py −

#!/usr/bin/python

import MySQLdb

# Open database connection
db = MySQLdb.connect("localhost","root","root@123")

# prepare a cursor object using cursor() method
cursor = db.cursor()

# execute SQL query using execute() method.
cursor.execute("SELECT VERSION()")

# Fetch a single row using fetchone() method.
data = cursor.fetchone()
if data:
   print( Version available:  , data)
else:
   print( Version not retrieved. )

# disconnect from server
db.close()

Output

Execute the mysql_example.py script using python and verify the output.

py mysql_example.py
Version available:  ( 8.0.23 ,)

Python & MySQL - Create Database Example

Python uses c.execute(q) function to create or delete a MySQL database where c is cursor and q is the query to be executed.

Syntax

# execute SQL query using execute() method.
cursor.execute(sql)

Example

Try the following example to create a database −

Copy and paste the following example as mysql_example.ty −

#!/usr/bin/python

import MySQLdb

# Open database connection
db = MySQLdb.connect("localhost","root","root@123")

# prepare a cursor object using cursor() method
cursor = db.cursor()

# execute SQL query using execute() method.
cursor.execute("CREATE DATABASE TUTORIALS")

print( Database created );

# disconnect from server
db.close()

Output

Execute the mysql_example.py script using python and verify the output.

Database created

Python & MySQL - Drop Database Example

Python uses c.execute(q) function to create or delete a MySQL database where c is cursor and q is the query to be executed.

Syntax

# execute SQL query using execute() method.
cursor.execute(sql)

Example

Try the following example to drop a database −

Copy and paste the following example as mysql_example.ty −

#!/usr/bin/python

import MySQLdb

# Open database connection
db = MySQLdb.connect("localhost","root","root@123")

# prepare a cursor object using cursor() method
cursor = db.cursor()

# execute SQL query using execute() method.
cursor.execute("DROP DATABASE TUTORIALS")

print( Database dropped );

# disconnect from server
db.close()

Output

Execute the mysql_example.py script using python and verify the output.

Database dropped

Python & MySQL - Select Database Example

Python MySQLdb provides MySQLdb.connect() function to select a database. This function takes multiple parameters and returns a connection object to do database operations.

Syntax

db = MySQLdb.connect(host, username, passwd, dbName, port, socket);

You can disconnect from the MySQL database anytime using another connection object function close().

Syntax

db.close()

Example

Try the following example to connect to a MySQL database −

Copy and paste the following example as mysql_example.py −

#!/usr/bin/python

import MySQLdb

# Open database connection
db = MySQLdb.connect("localhost","root","root@123", "TUTORIALS")

# prepare a cursor object using cursor() method
cursor = db.cursor()

# execute SQL query using execute() method.
cursor.execute("SELECT VERSION()")

# Fetch a single row using fetchone() method.
data = cursor.fetchone()
if data:
   print( Version available:  , data)
else:
   print( Version not retrieved. )

# disconnect from server
db.close()

Output

Execute the mysql_example.py script using python and verify the output.

py mysql_example.py
Version available:  ( 8.0.23 ,)

Python & MySQL - Create Table

Python uses c.execute(q) function to create a table where c is cursor and q is the query to be executed.

Syntax

# execute SQL query using execute() method.
cursor.execute(sql)

Example

Try the following example to create a table −

Copy and paste the following example as mysql_example.ty −

#!/usr/bin/python

import MySQLdb

# Open database connection
db = MySQLdb.connect("localhost","root","root@123", "TUTORIALS")

# prepare a cursor object using cursor() method
cursor = db.cursor()

sql = """CREATE TABLE tutorials_tbl( 
            tutorial_id INT NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
            tutorial_title VARCHAR(100) NOT NULL,
            tutorial_author VARCHAR(40) NOT NULL,
            submission_date DATE,
            PRIMARY KEY ( tutorial_id )); """;

# execute SQL query using execute() method.
cursor.execute(sql)

print( tutorials_tbl created )

# disconnect from server
db.close()

Output

Execute the mysql_example.py script using python and verify the output.

tutorials_tbl created

Python & MySQL - Drop Table Example

Python uses c.execute(q) function to drop a table where c is cursor and q is the delete query to be executed.

Syntax

# execute SQL query using execute() method.
cursor.execute(sql)

Example

Try the following example to drop a table −

Copy and paste the following example as mysql_example.ty −

#!/usr/bin/python

import MySQLdb

# Open database connection
db = MySQLdb.connect("localhost","root","root@123","TUTORIALS")

# prepare a cursor object using cursor() method
cursor = db.cursor()

# execute SQL query using execute() method.
cursor.execute("Drop Table tutorials_tbl")

print( Table dropped );

# disconnect from server
db.close()

Output

Execute the mysql_example.py script using python and verify the output.

Table dropped

PHP & MySQL - Insert Records Example

Python uses c.execute(q) function to insert a record(s) in a table where c is cursor and q is the insert query to be executed.

Syntax

# execute SQL query using execute() method.
cursor.execute(sql)

# commit the record
db.commit()

# get the row id for inserted record
print("ID:", cursor.lastrowid)

# print the number of records inserted
print(mycursor.rowcount, "records inserted.")

Example

Try the following example to insert records in a table −

Copy and paste the following example as mysql_example.ty −

#!/usr/bin/python

import MySQLdb

# Open database connection
db = MySQLdb.connect("localhost","root","root@123", "TUTORIALS")

# prepare a cursor object using cursor() method
cursor = db.cursor()

sql = """INSERT INTO tutorials_tbl
         (tutorial_title,tutorial_author, submission_date) 
         VALUES ( HTML 5 ,  Robert ,  2010-02-10 ),
         ( Java ,  Jupe ,  2020-12-10 ),
         ( JQuery ,  Jupe ,  2020-05-10 )
         """

# execute SQL query using execute() method.
cursor.execute(sql)

# commit the record
db.commit()

# get the row id for inserted record
print("ID:", cursor.lastrowid)

# print the number of records inserted
print(cursor.rowcount, "records inserted.")

# disconnect from server
db.close()

Output

Execute the mysql_example.py script using python and verify the output.

ID: 5
3 records inserted.

Python & MySQL - Select Records Example

Select/Read Operation on any database means to fetch some useful information from the database.

Once our database connection is estabpshed, you are ready to make a query into this database. You can use either fetchone() method to fetch single record or fetchall() method to fetch multiple values from a database table.

fetchone() − It fetches the next row of a query result set. A result set is an object that is returned when a cursor object is used to query a table.

fetchall() − It fetches all the rows in a result set. If some rows have already been extracted from the result set, then it retrieves the remaining rows from the result set.

rowcount − This is a read-only attribute and returns the number of rows that were affected by an execute() method.

Syntax

# execute SQL query using execute() method.
cursor.execute(sql)

result = cursor.fetchall()

for record in result:
   print(record)

Example

Try the following example to select records from a table −

Copy and paste the following example as mysql_example.ty −

#!/usr/bin/python

import MySQLdb

# Open database connection
db = MySQLdb.connect("localhost","root","root@123", "TUTORIALS")

# prepare a cursor object using cursor() method
cursor = db.cursor()

sql = "Select * from tutorials_tbl"

# execute SQL query using execute() method.
cursor.execute(sql)

# fetch all records from cursor
result = cursor.fetchall()

# iterate result and print records
for record in result:
   print(record)

# disconnect from server
db.close()

Output

Execute the mysql_example.py script using python and verify the output.

(1,  HTML 5 ,  Robert , datetime.date(2010, 2, 10))
(2,  Java ,  Jupe , datetime.date(2020, 12, 10))
(3,  JQuery ,  Jupe , datetime.date(2020, 5, 10))

Python & MySQL - Update Records Example

Python uses c.execute(q) function to update a record from a table where c is cursor and q is the update query to be executed.

Syntax

# execute SQL query using execute() method.
cursor.execute(sql)

cursor.commit()

# get the record count updated
print(mycursor.rowcount, "record(s) affected")

Example

Try the following example to update records in a table −

Copy and paste the following example as mysql_example.ty −

#!/usr/bin/python

import MySQLdb

# Open database connection
db = MySQLdb.connect("localhost","root","root@123", "TUTORIALS")

# prepare a cursor object using cursor() method
cursor = db.cursor()

sql = "UPDATE tutorials_tbl set tutorial_title = "Learning Java" where tutorial_id = 2"

# execute SQL query using execute() method.
cursor.execute(sql)

db.commit()

# get the record count updated
print(cursor.rowcount, " record(s) affected")

# disconnect from server
db.close()

Output

Execute the mysql_example.py script using python and verify the output.

1 record(s) affected

Python & MySQL - Delete Records Example

Python uses c.execute(q) function to delete a record from a table where c is cursor and q is the delete query to be executed.

Syntax

# execute SQL query using execute() method.
cursor.execute(sql)

cursor.commit()

# get the record count updated
print(mycursor.rowcount, "record(s) affected")

Example

Try the following example to insert records in a table −

Copy and paste the following example as mysql_example.ty −

#!/usr/bin/python

import MySQLdb

# Open database connection
db = MySQLdb.connect("localhost","root","root@123", "TUTORIALS")

# prepare a cursor object using cursor() method
cursor = db.cursor()

sql = "Delete from tutorials_tbl where tutorial_id = 2"

# execute SQL query using execute() method.
cursor.execute(sql)

db.commit()

# get the record count updated
print(cursor.rowcount, " record(s) affected")

# disconnect from server
db.close()

Output

Execute the mysql_example.py script using python and verify the output.

1 record(s) affected

Python & MySQL - Where Clause Example

Python uses c.execute(q) function to select a record(s) conditionally using Where Clause from a table where c is cursor and q is the select query to be executed.

Syntax

# execute SQL query using execute() method.
cursor.execute(sql)

result = cursor.fetchall()

for record in result:
   print(record)

Example

Try the following example to select records from a table −

Copy and paste the following example as mysql_example.ty −

#!/usr/bin/python

import MySQLdb

# Open database connection
db = MySQLdb.connect("localhost","root","root@123", "TUTORIALS")

# prepare a cursor object using cursor() method
cursor = db.cursor()

sql = "Select * from tutorials_tbl Where tutorial_id = 3"

# execute SQL query using execute() method.
cursor.execute(sql)

# fetch all records from cursor
result = cursor.fetchall()

# iterate result and print records
for record in result:
   print(record)

# disconnect from server
db.close()

Output

Execute the mysql_example.py script using python and verify the output.

(3,  JQuery ,  Jupe , datetime.date(2020, 5, 10))

Python & MySQL - Like Clause Example

Python uses c.execute(q) function to select a record(s) conditionally using Like Statement from a table where c is cursor and q is the select query to be executed.

Syntax

# execute SQL query using execute() method.
cursor.execute(sql)

result = cursor.fetchall()

for record in result:
   print(record)

Example

Try the following example to select records from a table using Like Statement −

Copy and paste the following example as mysql_example.ty −

#!/usr/bin/python

import MySQLdb

# Open database connection
db = MySQLdb.connect("localhost","root","root@123", "TUTORIALS")

# prepare a cursor object using cursor() method
cursor = db.cursor()

sql = "Select * from tutorials_tbl Where tutorial_title pke  J% "

# execute SQL query using execute() method.
cursor.execute(sql)

# fetch all records from cursor
result = cursor.fetchall()

# iterate result and print records
for record in result:
   print(record)

# disconnect from server
db.close()

Output

Execute the mysql_example.py script using python and verify the output.

(6,  Java ,  Jupe , datetime.date(2020, 12, 10))
(7,  JQuery ,  Jupe , datetime.date(2020, 5, 10))

Python & MySQL - Sorting Data Example

Python uses c.execute(q) function to select a record(s) in sorted order using sort by Statement from a table where c is cursor and q is the select query to be executed.

Syntax

# execute SQL query using execute() method.
cursor.execute(sql)

result = cursor.fetchall()

for record in result:
   print(record)

Example

Try the following example to select sorted records from a table using sort by Statement −

Copy and paste the following example as mysql_example.ty −

#!/usr/bin/python

import MySQLdb

# Open database connection
db = MySQLdb.connect("localhost","root","root@123", "TUTORIALS")

# prepare a cursor object using cursor() method
cursor = db.cursor()

sql = "Select * from tutorials_tbl order by tutorial_title asc"

# execute SQL query using execute() method.
cursor.execute(sql)

# fetch all records from cursor
result = cursor.fetchall()

# iterate result and print records
for record in result:
   print(record)

# disconnect from server
db.close()

Output

Execute the mysql_example.py script using python and verify the output.

(1,  HTML 5 ,  Robert , datetime.date(2010, 2, 10))
(2,  Java ,  Jupe , datetime.date(2020, 12, 10))
(3,  JQuery ,  Jupe , datetime.date(2020, 5, 10))

Python & MySQL - Using Joins Example

Python uses c.execute(q) function to select a record(s) from a table where c is cursor and q is the select query to be executed.

Syntax

# execute SQL query using execute() method.
cursor.execute(sql)

result = cursor.fetchall()

for record in result:
   print(record)

First create a table in MySQL using following script and insert two records.

create table tcount_tbl(
   tutorial_author VARCHAR(40) NOT NULL,
   tutorial_count int
);

insert into tcount_tbl values( Jupe , 2);
insert into tcount_tbl values( Robert , 1);

Example

Try the following example to get records from a two tables using Join. −

Copy and paste the following example as mysql_example.ty −

#!/usr/bin/python

import MySQLdb

# Open database connection
db = MySQLdb.connect("localhost","root","root@123", "TUTORIALS")

# prepare a cursor object using cursor() method
cursor = db.cursor()

sql = """SELECT a.tutorial_id, a.tutorial_author, b.tutorial_count
				FROM tutorials_tbl a, tcount_tbl b
				WHERE a.tutorial_author = b.tutorial_author"""

# execute SQL query using execute() method.
cursor.execute(sql)

# fetch all records from cursor
result = cursor.fetchall()

# iterate result and print records
for record in result:
  print(record)

# disconnect from server
db.close()

Output

Execute the mysql_example.py script using python and verify the output.

(1,  Robert , 1)
(2,  Jupe , 2)
(3,  Jupe , 2)

Python & MySQL - Performing Transactions

Transactions are a mechanism that ensures data consistency. Transactions have the following four properties −

Atomicity − Either a transaction completes or nothing happens at all.

Consistency − A transaction must start in a consistent state and leave the system in a consistent state.

Isolation − Intermediate results of a transaction are not visible outside the current transaction.

Durabipty − Once a transaction was committed, the effects are persistent, even after a system failure.

The Python DB API 2.0 provides two methods to either commit or rollback a transaction.

Example

You already know how to implement transactions. Here is again similar example −

# Prepare SQL query to DELETE required records
sql = "Delete from tutorials_tbl where tutorial_id = 2"
try:
   # Execute the SQL command
   cursor.execute(sql)
   # Commit your changes in the database
   db.commit()
except:
   # Rollback in case there is any error
   db.rollback()

COMMIT Operation

Commit is the operation, which gives a green signal to database to finapze the changes, and after this operation, no change can be reverted back.

Here is a simple example to call commit method.

db.commit()

ROLLBACK Operation

If you are not satisfied with one or more of the changes and you want to revert back those changes completely, then use rollback() method.

Here is a simple example to call rollback() method.

db.rollback()

Disconnecting Database

To disconnect Database connection, use close() method.

db.close()

If the connection to a database is closed by the user with the close() method, any outstanding transactions are rolled back by the DB. However, instead of depending on any of DB lower level implementation details, your apppcation would be better off calpng commit or rollback exppcitly.

Python & MySQL - Handpng Errors

There are many sources of errors. A few examples are a syntax error in an executed SQL statement, a connection failure, or calpng the fetch method for an already canceled or finished statement handle.

The DB API defines a number of errors that must exist in each database module. The following table psts these exceptions.

Your Python scripts should handle these errors, but before using any of the above exceptions, make sure your MySQLdb has support for that exception. You can get more information about them by reading the DB API 2.0 specification.